For those who are beginning a study of sociology, sociological theory may represent somewhat of a departure from the study of sociological issues. The study of sociology may provide an interesting and relevant discussion of contemporary issues.

In contrast, sociological theory may appear to be overly concerned with historical issues and views of writers which are no longer relevant. Sociological theory provides a set of frameworks within which current issues can be examined. The following notes contain some comments and analysis of the nature of sociological theory.

There are many different and conflicting approaches to the study of society within sociology, and these different approaches are generally part of or derive from different theories of sociology.

Hadden provides only a very brief discussion of the nature of sociological theory. In contrast, Wallace and Wolf spend all of Chapter 1 providing a more extensive discussion of the variety of ways that sociological theory can be approached.

What the major sociological theories do is adopt a relatively consistent set of definitions and assumptions, define concepts, develop statements and propositions, and from these build an overall model of the social world. This model may refer to only one portion of the social world (e.g. symbolic interaction approaches deal only with social interaction at the small group level) or they may be comprehensive models that explain the large structures of society as well as interaction among individuals and small groups (e.g. theories of Parsons and Weber). Such a model will lead to hypotheses which, hopefully, can be tested using empirical observation or data concerning the social world. As a result, each theory also has some methodology or some methodological approaches associated with it.

If the theory or theoretical model is to prove its worth, it must also help us understand or explain some part of the social world, perhaps leading to development of social policy, or leading to recommendations concerning social practice.
In summary, a sociological theory can be considered to be a framework that leads to a model of the social world.

A theory is likely to be more systematic, consistent, and carefully considered than are everyday explanations based on personal experience and observation. This does not make it better than the latter, but a theory may be more generally applicable to a variety of social situations. One criterion of a good theory is that it is at least somewhat universal, being applicable to a variety of issues, situations, places, or times. No theory can be expected to explain all aspects of the social world, and each theory needs to be tested in particular circumstances.

Wallace and Wolf begin in a similar manner to that of Hadden by noting that sociological theories are ways of looking at the world. They then discuss various characteristics of theory in general and social theory in particular, arguing (i) that it should be systematic, having comprehensive discussions of social life, leading to new insights, and allowing for its ideas to be widely disseminated and available to a wide audience; and (ii) that it should show some commonality of different social actions and events, that is, it must have a way of sorting through, organizing, and classifying the myriad aspects of social life.

One way that Wallace and Wolf demonstrate the usefulness of sociological theory is to discuss how it can be applied to two specific issues – formal education and the role of women in contemporary society (WW, pp, 14-15). If sociological theory is to be relevant in contemporary society, it has to be useful in developing an understanding of and explanation of social issues. Otherwise it may be only an elaborate set of ideas which have little relevance to the social world and to the people who form the social world. As much as possible,

I will attempt to use the same issues as Wallace and Wolf in each section of the course, showing how the different social theories can be applied to concrete issues like education and the role of women and men.

Since there are many different approaches to sociological theory, it might be thought that these different approaches are contradictory or mutually exclusive. The theories of Marx and Weber have sometimes been presented in this form – with Weber's ideas formed to counter those of Marx. Most writers now consider them more complementary, with Weber addressing issues that Marx neglected. Similarly, many of the other approaches can also be considered complementary, asking different questions, using different methodologies, and providing different answers.

At the same time, some of the approaches are alternatives to each other – for example, the consensus model of structural functionalism must be considered to contradict many of the conflict theories.

2. Sociology as Science?

There are many different sciences and to say that something is science and scientific can be misleading. In addition, there are many who have misused science, or used it as a screen to hide poor theory and analysis. At the same time, there is something systematic about most of the disciplines that call themselves scientific, something that makes them different from speculation, religion or purely abstract thought.

From Cuff et al. (p. 4) one characteristic of science is:
First, an approach that claims to be scientific ... must demonstrably have empirical relevance to the world. An empirical relevance involves showing that any statements, descriptions and explanations used or derived from this approach can be verified or checked out in the world.

What types of approaches would not meet this standard? Philosophy, mathematics, humanities and much of religion would not meet these standards. Of course, much of what passes for science might not either. What this shows is not that the other forms of knowledge are illegitimate, but that they are different ways of reasoning.

The second part of a scientific approach is a set of methods or procedures.

A scientific approach necessarily involves standards and procedures which not only show how 'results' were achieved, but are also clear enough for other workers in the fields to attempt to repeat them, that is, to check them out with the same of other materials and thereby test the results. A scientific approach necessarily involves standards and procedures for demonstrating the 'empirical warrant' of its findings, showing the match or fit between its statements and what is happening or has happened in the world. (Cuff, p. 4).

The second part of the criteria rules out visions, divine inspiration, and perhaps even intuition (although the latter seems to be important in the development of new approaches -- part of the feminist critique of "scientific method" as it is usually understood is that intuition is downplayed). If a scientific claim has been made, then a researcher or theorist must allow, and even encourage, others to retest the claims made. Even if the claim is found to be false or partly wrong, the claim may have an important influence on ideas and ways of thinking about and understanding the world. (E.g. continental drift, staples theory).

According to the Cuff et al., the two criteria for a scientific approach are that there be empirical relevance and clear procedures. Forms of knowledge that satisfy these two criteria can be termed scientific. Note though that Cuff et al. do not claim that scientific insights are always superior to other insights. The authors do say though that scientific insights can be "verified by empirical testing.” Perhaps somewhat ironically, one of the key aspects of a scientific approach is that it can be negated or disproved. Religious knowledge or artistic expression cannot really be proved incorrect.

The notions of repeated testing, having systematic standards and procedures, having statements and approaches that can be disproved, and having some match or fit between what is theorized and what does happen are important. Note that repeated testing may not mean repeatability. In the social sciences, much research is not repeatable, but other researchers can examine the same issue or problem. In doing this being open to others re-examining the same issues and problems is crucial. Because of the confusion over the meaning of science, and the difference between natural and social science, I sometimes prefer to call sociology systematic investigation and theorizing about human social relationships and interaction.

Note that within this approach to what science is, there is nothing that prevents quite different views and approaches from emerging, and all of them may be considered to be scientific. Empirical tests may negate some approaches, but only after considerable periods of time. No approach is likely to have all of its propositions and statements never being proved incorrect. Even a poor theoretical approach may contain some correct statements and propositions.

Industrialization and Urbanization:

Trade, commerce, finance and exploration all developed rapidly after 1500. Changes in the organization of agriculture helped to increase food production so that population could grow, and ultimately also meant that there were more people in rural areas than needed earlier. Cities had begun to develop as isolated centers for trade and commerce in the middle ages.

These cities were important for their economic role and also for their political role: as self-governing units free of feudal control (democracy begins to develop) and as centers for the emergence of the new middle classes or the bourgeoisie. These changes took place through much of Europe, and at the end of the 1700s, the stage was set for major developments in European society.
In the economic sphere, the Industrial Revolution began in Britain, changing forever the relative roles of agriculture and industry, and introducing a period when change would become the norm in production of goods and services.

Britain was clearly the leader, but other countries also had industrial revolutions, although somewhat later. Britain developed cotton textile production in factories. The nature of production changed dramatically, with more and more production taking place in factories.

The way in which this took place changed the social order -- from lords and serfs to capitalists and workers. The Industrial Revolution has never stopped, with continual changes in the nature of production occurring after this. Production of industrial commodities also began to be centered in urban areas, and the population shift from rural to urban began.

Over time, the effects of the Industrial Revolution have spread to all areas of the world. In this sense, the effect is universal, and theories describing the new economy of capitalism can also claim certain universality.

Religion and Secular Thought:

The teachings of the church in the middle ages have been called the "Christian paternalist or corporate ethic," reflecting the idea of society as a single entity or corporation. Within this traditional form of society the individual was not important, nor the basis for analysis of society.

The common person was to take his or her place in society and carry out his or her duties willingly. Society could be compared to a traditional family with the Church or God as father and with the others as willing subjects in this institution. Accepting leadership and not questioning authority. These traditional teachings of the Church also were ant capitalist -- prohibiting profit and interest and discouraging innovation, trade and gain.

The challenge to the authority of Rome began in the 14th Century, but the Reformation is usually dated as beginning with Martin Luther posting his 95 theses to the door of the Wittenberg church on October 31, 1517. In most countries of Western Europe, Protestant groups emerged over the next few years. In England, the conflict between Henry VIII and Rome led to the break with Rome in 1534.

These developments challenged the authority of traditional thought in various ways. (i) At the minimum, they meant several sources of independent thought, rather than having authoritative ideas coming from Rome. (ii) The notion of a single entity or corporation as an adequate description of society was shattered. (iii) Individualism began to be promoted, since many of the Protestant doctrines emphasized the relationship of the individual to God, without necessarily having the Church involved. (iv) The possibility of the development of secular thought.

If the Church is no longer the sole authority, and different forms of relationship with God could exist, this could open the possibility of individual interpretations which do not involve God. By the 1700s, a much more open view of ideas became possible.

The new Protestant churches place less emphasis on the salvation through the church and tended to emphasize personal salvation. Max Weber considered this more individualistic approach to be one of the major forces that gave impetus to the development of capitalism in Western Europe.

Science and Technology:

The physical sciences had shown tremendous developments in the understanding of the physical world. Galileo (1564-1642, Italian), Kepler (1571-1630, German) and Newton (1642-1727, English) each combined careful observation of the movement of physical bodies with reasoning to obtain laws of motion.

These laws could be described mathematically and were universal in their application. In addition, these laws were useful in a practical way -- they could be used to help understand motion and could be adapted to produce new technologies. Zeitlin argues that these developments "had an incalculable impact on the intellectuals of the Enlightenment.

Here was a magnificent triumph of reason and observation, the new method that takes observed facts and advances an interpretation that accounts for what is observed, so that if the interpretation is correct, it can guide observers in their quest for new facts." (Zeitlin, p. 3).
Political Changes:

The old political system began to break down in England by the 1600s. There the parliament became supreme, with the authority of the king being replaced by that of parliament between 1640 and 1688. This can be interpreted as the victory of the bourgeoisie, or middle classes, in the political arena -- replacing the exclusive rule of aristocracy and landowners. In France, change took place more slowly, but when change did occur it was much more spectacular. The French Revolution of 1789 overthrew the old order in a few months and created dramatic changes very quickly.

Many of the ideas that had been developed in the Enlightenment were put into practice -- with the ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity setting the basis for a completely new social and political order. These changes also represented the victory for the new middle classes in France, and the beginnings of societies based on the individual and individualism. The American Revolution carried many of the same ideas. While democracy was slow to take root, the new slogans and structures began to move in this direction in the political world.

Canada had no such successful revolution, but the forces of democracy did have some effect within this country as well. While Canada remained a colony until 1867, with colonial influences continuing until much later, Canada also developed some forms of democratic rule.

Socialism was another political current that was influential. In the English and in the French Revolution there were those who wanted to take equality seriously and create equality for all, not just for the middle classes. Ideas of communal ownership or ownership by all emerged with the Levelers in England. In the French Revolution, Babeuf argued for an egalitarian society and said that the existing government would have to be toppled by force.

There had been a long history of peasant revolts, but these did not create permanent organizations. With the development of industry, workers began to form trade unions. While it took considerable time for these to develop, they did show the effectiveness of the organization of ordinary working people. Robert Owen (1771-1858) was a successful British industrialist who had a vision of a better society. He established a model workers' community in New Lanark, Scotland where workers had decent wages and children were educated. He argued for creation of a society of equals and for social reforms. What is important about these is that there were socialist ideas of equality and improvement of society during the early nineteenth century.

These were to have a strong influence on the writings and activities of Marx.

References

Cuff, E. C., W. W. Sharrock and D. W. Francis, Perspectives in Sociology, thrid edition, London, Routledge, 1992. HM.6 P37 1984.
Hadden, R. W., Sociological Theory: An Introduction to the Classical Tradition, Peterborough, Broadview Press, 1997.
Hunt, E. K., Property and Prophets: the Evolution of Economic Institutions and Ideologies, sixth edition, New York, Harper and Row, 1990.
Ritzer, G., Sociological, Theory, third edition, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1992. HM24 R4938
Rosenau, P. M., Post-modernism and the Social Sciences: Insights, Inroads, and Intrusions, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1992.
Wallace, R. A. and A. Wolf, Contemporary Sociological Theory: Expanding the Classical Tradition, fifth edition, Upper Saddle River, N. J., Prentice-Hall, 1999.
Zeitlin, Irving M., Ideology and the Development of Sociological Thought, fourth edition, Englewood Cliffs, N. J., Prentice Hall, 1990. HM19 Z4