Introduction
A brief history into the researches on leadership
reveals that the one of the first set of studies
were carried out during the half century between
1900 and 1950s, through the same focused on the
leader and some of the characteristics of the
followers. This was then proceeded with the findings
that there was no single trait or combination
of traits which may explain the abilities of a
leader, thus prompting researchers to focus on
the influence of the situation on leader's respective
skills and behaviors. This then resulted in the
categorization of effective leaders from the non-effective
leaders. In order to comprehensively gain insight
as to what differentiated effective leaders from
the non-effective leaders; researches focused
on the contingency model of examining the connection
between personal traits, situational variables,
and leader effectiveness. Later studies carried
out in the 1970s and then again 1980 once again
focused on the individual characteristics of leaders
which influence their effectiveness as well as
the successes of their organizations, leading
researchers to deduce that both leaders as well
as leadership were both complex parts of an organization.
Historical Development of Educational
Leadership
Though the above section somewhat comprehensively
takes into account the various aspects of the
different leadership characteristics and their
historical development, the following section
will focus on the educational leadership in both
the organization as well as the administration
disciplines. The following brief section will
also cover how the intricate disciplines of leadership
has been redefined by both management and organizational
theory, so that leadership takes on a scientific
appearance, theories as well as concepts and practices
with future potential for development and application.
Researches into the various aspects of educational
leadership thus reveal that it is not only an
entirely new concept of educational leadership
as it duly takes into account some of the most
vital issues including, but not limited to, the
curriculum leadership, supervision, teacher evaluation,
budgeting, planning as well as the design of the
respective educational institution.
Other vitally important areas covered under the
heading of educational leadership includes 'multiple
lenses of democratic leadership, which duly investigates
the intellectual set of ideas and notions of leadership.
Then there are elements of other equally vital
characteristics of management, organization, and
law, all of which presents views of leadership
in a manner which duly reflects the ongoing contemporary
research covering the \superintendence and principal-ship,
also including the respective strains in the present
day school leadership issues.
Yet another set of factors that has a strong
influence on politics and policy are the major
international, local as well as federal as well
as state initiatives all of which duly influence
the educational leadership of present day academic
institutions.
Also included in these researches are the various
theories of leadership, research problems and
practices, all of which comprehensively investigate
the subject of our dissertation, leadership, as
well as the detailed nature of research work carried
out on management as well as management practices.
One may also observe that the above studies on
leadership, the different researches on the various
aspects with respect to educational leadership
also brings to light the current operational challenges
faced by the present breed of school teacher.
Some of these include the declining fiscal support,
a lack of public confidence, outmoded facilities
and technology, the achievement gap, rising spate
of violence at academic institutions, vandalism,
as well as the numerous challenges of coping and
dealing with special populations, or disable children.
(English, 2004)
Another perspective of leadership in the educational
paradigm is one where theory of multiple intelligence
has been put forward by Howard Gardner. In Gardner'
Multiple Intelligence, the focus is on the 'IQ'
of the individuals, or put it simply assessing
their smartness. The fact that this particular
theory has brought significant changes in the
teaching methods by teachers has perhaps led to
its immense popularity. Though Garnder's original
set of multiple intelligence were based on only
7 important mediums of intelligence, he has now
come out with an 8th intelligence. This new find
has further strengthened the mode of teaching
and focusing on the student's ability to accomplish
a given task, and irrespective of what he or she
cannot accomplish.
A brief on some of the aspects of Gardener’s
7 original intelligence’s revealed that
teachers were well aware of the student’s
ability to now the subject well, yet the same
students failed to answer some of the basic questions
and thus failed in the requisite tests. It was
perhaps this dilemma that forced Gardner to bring
out an 8th Intelligence, focusing on the involvement
of the teacher and the method of learning, thus
nurturing an environment of understanding the
students. In this context Gardern's book "The
Unschooled Mind: How Children Think and How Schools
Should Teach" published by Basic Books in
1991, and "The Theory in Practice" published
in 1993 assisted the various multiple intelligence
methods for the teachers. These books also showed
as to how these principles guided evaluated the
average student community through new and effective
methods of teaching.
Before a brief on the 8th intelligence by Gardner
is presented, Gardner would only justify it to
provide a brief on each of the 7 intelligence
criteria as set out. These are:
Linguistic Intelligence, a type of intelligence
where the meaning and order of words are comprehended
by students.
Logical Mathematical Intelligence, is the type
of intelligence where the student exhibits extraordinary
skills in mathematics and complex logical systems.
Musical Intelligence: this type of intelligence
is found in students who inhibit the ability to
understand and create music. Prime example for
this type of intelligence is found in musicians,
composers, as well as dancers.
Spatial Intelligence: this is a type of intelligence
where the student shows extraordinary abilities
to view objects and surroundings and perceive
them in picture format. Upon perception of a visual
world, a student or artist thus re-creates a visual
world in his or her mind, or put it on paper.
Some examples of individuals with such qualities
include artists, architects, designers and sculptors.
Bodily kinesthetic intelligence; this is a type
of intelligence where a student exhibits his or
her ability to use his own body in a skilled format,
whether for the purpose of self-expression, or
towards the accomplishment of a particular goal.
Examples of individuals with such qualities include
mimes, dancers, basket ball players, as well as
actors, all of who make use of their bodies to
express their feelings, thoughts whether their
own or borrowed from others.
Interpersonal Intelligence: this is a type of
intelligence in which an individual or student
shows excellent qualities of perception and understanding
those around him. In addition an individual with
such qualities will also easily comprehend the
moods, desires, and motivations of those around
him or her. These set of qualities or traits are
generally found in political or religious leaders,
skilled parents and teachers, as well as trained
therapist who make use of their intelligence.
Intrapersonal Intelligence: this is also somewhat
similar to interpersonal intelligence, with the
exception of understanding one's own emotions.
Included in this particular category of intelligent
people are those belonging to the category of
novelists and counselors, each of who effectively
utilize their own experiences to guide others
in their respective fields of disciplines.
Naturalist Intelligence
The eight, and perhaps the most important of all
the different types of intelligence defined and
categorized by Gardner is that of 'Naturalist
Intelligence'. This is unique in the respect that
it singularly takes into account various functions
of the human brain, and in doing so, recognizes
as well as classifies the various types of plans,
minerals, animals, rocks, grass, as well as the
numerous types of fauna and flowers present around
us. Hence its names as the 'naturalist intelligence',
According to Gardner, this specific characteristic
is found in ver few individuals, however those
who exhibit such high form of intelligence can
do so at a very early age, at both the recognition
as well as the classification of artifacts. An
example to this respect maybe found in kindergartners
aged 3 or 4 years who can easily identify dinosaurs,
as compared with their adult counterparts.
Additional Educational Theories of Leadership:
Application of Multiple Intelligence
in Classroom Settings
Gardener’s theory of multiple intelligence
was put to test in a classroom setting, an exercise
that resulted in excellent findings. For example
it was observed that the multiple intelligence
theory when applied in a classroom setting showed
that it worked best when teacher took each child
individually and seek out the differences among
the kids. Furthermore this could only be accomplished
if and when the respective teacher took a deep
interest in the children of his class, as well
as their different thinking abilities, and using
that information utilized them accordingly.
The practice of using multiple intelligence in
a number of classroom settings proved such immense
popularity that it helped practically all students.
This theory was then complimented with such works
as "In Variations on a Theme: How Teachers
Interpret MI Theory" (published in Education
Leadership issue of September 1997.
Using Gardener’s multi-intelligence theories,
it was also observed that a number of academic
institutions incorporated them together with some
of their own innovations. For example in some
schools, it was observed that a focus was given
to lesson designing, which involved teach teaching,
an exercise where teachers focused on their own
intelligence strengths. In such a strategy, all
and additional intelligence methods were used,
as well as students opinions were taken into account.
The student were also asked if they would like
to suggest any measure for achieving best results
in teaching and learning a given subject of category
of topics.
Thus, Gardener’s theory of multiple intelligence
showed that the teachers, school administrators
as well as parents can all become good leaders
and utilize their skills for the betterment of
their children. These strategies also allow students
to investigate and explore new methods as well
as assist them in directing towards new areas
of learning. On their part, the adults as leaders
can understand, appreciate and identify the requisite
strengths of their children, and guide them through
real world situations. (Guignon, 1998)
Models/Theories of Leadership
Numerous studies on leadership and leaders by
equally renowned researchers revealed that an
insight on leaders showed that they were 'endowed'
with specific personality traits. These researches
found traits such as intelligence, birth order,
socio-economic status, and child rearing practices.
In addition, studies carried out by Stodgill in
1974 further identified six different categories
of personal factors, which were found to be related
to leadership. These included the factors of capacity,
achievement, responsibility, participation, status,
and situation. However, there was also a criticism
on the same set of findings, as researches noted
that these set of factors were certainly insufficient
as traits and could not characterize a certain
individual as an effective leader. For example,
Stodgill in his writings notes that " a person
does not become a leader by virtue of the possession
of some combination of traits". The results
of such deductions were that the notion that certain
specific individual traits could not differentiate
between an effective leader from a non-effective
leader. (English, 2004)
Situational Leadership: Influence of Settings
on Leaders
Once the 'trait' factors were examined and their
relationship with leaders and leadership assessed,
the focus was then diverted to the examination
of 'settings', as the determinants of leadership
abilities, in turn giving rise to the 'situational
leadership'. In this respect studies carried out
by Hoy and Miskel in 1987 categorized the "distinctive
characteristics of the setting to which the leader's
success could be attributed"
Additional studies carried out by Henley in 1973
also confirmed these findings and duly noted that
approach based on situation was determined by
the requirements of social situation, and not
on the character of the individual as was found
in earlier studies. Thus, a deeper focus on how
situation affected leadership revealed that there
existed four areas of situational leadership namely,
""structural properties of the organization,
organizational climate, role characteristics,
and subordinate characteristics" (Hoy and
Miskel (1987) p. 273). However, these findings
on situational leadership also proved to be ineffective
in ascertaining the complexity of leadership,
as these theories failed to predict any relationship
between the skills of a leader and the respective
situations. (English, 2004)
Determination of Effective Leadership:
Various Dimensions
Although the above noted theories have more than
proved the various aspects on the different traits
and behaviors with respect to leadership styles
of equally different individuals. There have been
other attempts such as those focusing on different
dimensions of leadership, which too need equal
emphasis. Thus the researchers have found two
such dimensions; the first is the dimension of
'initiating structures' which takes into account
the concern for organizational tasks, while the
second dimension of 'consideration', takes into
account concern for respective individual and
their interpersonal relations. A brief into each
of these dimensions reveals that the 'initiating
structures' includes within it such activities
as planning, organizing, and defining the various
tasks and work assigned to the respective individuals,
for example how a particular work is accomplished
in an organization. On the other hand 'consideration'
takes into account the emotional requirements
of the individual, their social requirements,
the recognition of, the satisfaction and self-esteem
which influences the performance of the respective
individual.
In similar context, the dimensions of consideration
and initiating structures have been differently
defined by equally different researchers, and
given different names. For example some researches
categorizes this and names these dimensions as
effectiveness and efficiency. In similar context,
other researches note the same characteristics
as goal achievement and group maintenance. In
addition, other writings note them as instrumental
and expressive needs, while others still puts
the characteristics of initiating structures and
consideration as system or person oriented behaviors.
Perhaps the assessment instrument developed namely
the "Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire,
(LBDQ), has been the most widely used. As this
finding alone noted that "effective leadership
behavior tends most often to be associated with
high performance on both dimensions", clearly
implying that effective leaders were able to handle
and cope both the given tasks as well as the various
human aspects of the organization.
Hence the above findings and researches on effective
leadership and their history have differentiated
between leaders and followers. These studies also
reveal the differences between effective and non-effective
leaders, which in turn led to the various dimensions,
such as 'initiating structures and consideration',
as also explained in the preceding paragraphs.
(English, 2004)
Differences Between Leadership and Management
Having comprehensively discussed the various aspects
of leaderships in equally different settings with
a focus on historical development of leadership,
and leadership in an academic environment, the
following paper will present some of the studies
on leadership and management including their varying
differences.
A brief into the history of leadership reveals
that it is a phenomenon that is perhaps been present
since antiquity, with some of the first studies
into this particular discipline commencing in
the era of 1930s. These scientific researches
and data collected shows that though a great deal
has been documented on leadership, yet there still
remain a horde of questions, which have yet to
find a plausible answer. For example out of more
than 3,000 independent studies by Bass in 1990,
the relationship between leaders and their subordinates
has largely been ignored. In addition, there is
scant evidence on the relationship between leaders
and their superiors, their external constituencies,
peers, and the product or services provided by
their respective organizations.
The available literature on leadership is largely
based on the assumptions reflecting Western industrialized
culture, and such is the extent of this huge literature
that practically all the prevailing theories on
leadership, and more than 98 percent of the empirical
evidence are about or surrounds the American culture
and character. In addition, it is individualistic
instead of being collective, give more emphasis
to the responsibilities of the followers or subordinates
instead of the leader, and exhibits hedonism instead
of a show of commitment towards duty and motivation.
Hence, a large segment of the intermediate topics
on management are ignored, and instead focus on
the centrality of work by the subordinates.
As also reiterated in the opening part of this
paper, a large part of the historical research
carried out between the years 1930 and 1950 focused
on highlighting the personal characteristics of
a leader. These included for example such aspects
as his or her gender, height, physical energy,
psychological traits, motives, authoritarianism,
intelligence and appearance. Thus, effective leaders
were differentiated from non-leaders based on
the above said traits, without concerning the
importance or implications of their management,
or their subordinates. (Aditya and House, 1997).
The Differences Between Leaders and Managers
A brief on the two vital positions or designations
of a leader and that of a manager reveal that
a manager is an individual who has the task of
doing the things in a rightful manner, whereas
leaders are individuals who do the right things.
Another way to differentiate between a leader
and a manager is that where a leader acts as a
transactor, the manager acts as a transformer.
Another research on the differences between a
leader and a manager shows that a manager's task
is to procure the requisite material and manpower,
coordinate, and carry out the distribution of
human and material resources as and when needed
by an organization. The manager thus embarks upon
a predefined set of rules and regulations of the
organization, and through the utilization of his
skills, the requisite manager facilitates the
given tasks or work of the organization according
to the needs and requisites of the organization.
Thus, a manager controls, arranges, and strives
to do the things in the right approach.
The leader on the other hand is responsible for
the compliance of the given tasks, or nature of
work as required by the organization and fulfills
the needs thereof. In addition, it the responsibility
of the leader to facilitate the identification
of organizational goals, initiation of the development
of a vision for their respective organizations.
The leader, thus is responsible for the 'unleashing
of the requisite energy, setting the the vision,
and doing the right thing.
Another set of researches found that there exist
two very distinct but fairly common set of aspects,
that of 'vision', and that of 'shared vision',
each shared by the leader and manager of an organization
respectively.
Bennis in his writings duly notes that all leaders
have this in-borne capacity and ability to create
a vision, one that takes the organization as well
as the people to new heights, as well as the ability
to translate that vision into a reality. This
aspect is also duly confirmed in latest researches
on the characteristics of a leader, who is characterized
as the holder of the organization's vision, 'the
keeper of the dream', and the individual having
the foresight to accomplish that vision for his
organization.
DePree in his writings duly asserts that "the
first responsibility of a leader is to define
reality", while Bennis in his writings comments
that the leader "manages the dream' of his
organization. taking both these definitions, Manasse
in his writings duly comments that vision is a
force which molds meaning for the people of an
organization." (SEDL, 2004)
Thus a vision of leadership, also known as visionary
leadership takes into account four different types
of visions, namely organization, further, personal,
and strategic vision. A brief into each of this
reveals that a organization vision encompasses
a complete picture of the respective organization's
different systems and components, together with
a comprehensive understanding of the interpersonal-relationships.
Futuristic vision notes as to how an organization
may appear in the future, it position in the future
of business or services, as well as future functioning
of the respective organization.
Personal vision takes into account the respective
leader's persona aspirations for the respective
organization, and the acts, which will as the
binding force between the organization and vision
of the future.
Finally, strategic vision takes into account
the connection of the present day situations with
that of the future possibilities in a manner that
best suits the organization's predefined goals
and objectives. It is also imperative that this
vision on the pat of the leader be duly shared
with the subordinates to bring to fruit the realization
of the vision.
An important aspect of 'vision' is that of shared
vision'. It is this shared vision which is largely
responsible for the distinction between a true
leader and simple managers. As the vision has
to be equally shared by individuals of that organization,
and it is this sharing that can truly result in
the realization and accomplishment of the vision.
To give credence to this notion and theory of
vision and shared vision, one may observe that
it is rare to find a policy to develop, implement,
and conclude without sharing the requisite vision
with the subordinates. Thus a policy commencing
from the top echelons of power and hierarchy to
the followers and subordinates may altogether
face a failure, if the same is not shared amongst
those who are directly involved in its implementation.
Thus, it would only be true to acknowledge that
'vision comes alive only when it is shared."
(SEDL, 2004)
In summing up the differences between a leader
and that of a manager, one may observe that a
leader is best able to exhibit his responsibilities
in a consistent and customized manner through
the adoption of techniques such as one-on-one
leadership to the specific needs of each subordinate
or follower. This may be compared to the parents
who are consistent in their love and respect in
teaching values and proper behavior to each child,
thus working on the analogy that no two children
are alike, hence the need for customization of
dealings. In similar context, managers too must
be able to customize their dealings with their
subordinates similar to the parenting style of
skilled and educated parents. Same is true for
the subordinates, as majority of subordinates
feel that they are best left to work in an environment
where the burden of assignment is assessed on
the results of the final product or service. While,
there are others who would like their managers
to work along side and share the burden of work.
Thus, also leading us to deduce that there is
no one specific method of managing subordinates/employees,
as also the absence of a single minded set of
employees, with customization, adoption and understanding
serving as the core aspects of both a good leader
as well as a good manager.
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