| Thucydides,
an Athenian, wrote the history of the war between
the Peloponnesians and the Athenians, beginning
at the moment that it broke out. This belief rested
on the fact that the preparations of the combatants
in every department was almost perfect.
In his account of the war, there is an interesting
debate between Athenians and the Melians. Melos
was a small sparsely populated island in the Cretan
sea. There were many smaller islands around it
which were part of the mighty Athenian Empire.
Melos was allied with the Spartans or the Lacadaemons
who were Athens’ enemy in the Peloponnesian
War. But in the Peloponnesian War, Melos remained
neutral. When the Athenians confront Melos and
ask them to be part of the Athenian empire voluntarily
and pay tribute, the Melians refuse and argue
their case for neutrality. In the narration of
this discussion, Thucydides, throws light on a
number of interesting aspects of human behaviour.
The Athenians argue the Machiavellian theory of
the right to rule and the right to invade based
purely on their military strength.
When the Melians were allowed to voice their arguments,
they say
“We see that, although you may reason with
us, you mean to be our judges; and that at the
end of the discussion, if the justice of our cause
prevail and we therefore refuse to yield, we may
expect war; if we are convinced by you, slavery."
This high lightens the fact that the policy of
might is right has existed as long ago as the
Pelopponesian War. The Melians accuse the Athenians
that they are likely to be blind to justice even
if the arguments bring to light the justice behind
the Melians desire for freedom and neutrality.
Powerful people have their own say in any discussion
is the crux of the matter. Towards enforcing this
meaning, Athenians say, “question of justice
only enters where there is equal power to enforce
it” How true these words could be in the
study of human nature!
So often, in sports and in war, one notices that
if the vanquished is a weak power, then sympathy
is what is generated in the eyes of the public.
Only when the war is between equals , the vanquished
suffer the ignominy of defeat . This reflection
on the power equation between combatants is revealed
in the words of the Athenians “, if you
calmly reflect: for you are not fighting against
equals to whom you cannot yield without disgrace,
but you are taking counsel whether or no you shall
resist an overwhelming force. The question is
not one of honor but of prudence. “
Thus, the decision to surrender by a weak power
to a powerful country would be just prudence according
to the Athenians. This is a study on invasion
decisions taken by states with great military
strength.
“If we yield now, all is over; but if we
fight, there is yet a hope that we may stand upright.
“ are words of heroism. ( Melians) Human
nature has a tendency to exhibit heroism in the
face of adventure.
Thus, in the argument between the Melians and
the Athenians, the arrogance and authoritarian
spirit of the Athenians contrasts sharply with
the meek voice of Melians tinged with desperation,
hope and courage all at the same time.
The arrogance of the Athenians comes to light
when they even want to be in the favour of the
Gods “. For of the Gods we believe, and
of men we know, that by a law of their nature
wherever they can rule they will.”
“ Thucydides sees how impressive human nature
and life can be at their best, but also how rapidly
both can degenerate under stress. The Melian Controversy
gives the Athenian reasons for attacking the small
island of Melos in 416, making them say bluntly
that those who are powerful need have no regard
for justice, human rights, or the gods.”
[ Richar Hooker, 1996 ,http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/GREECE/THUCY.HTM]
Thucydides thus unveils the ruthlessness that
is unleashed by military strength in this dialogue
that is part of his great book “The Pelopponesian
War”.The core of the might Athenian philosophy
is encapsuled in the words “To maintain
our rights against equals, to be politic with
superiors, and to be moderate towards inferiors
is the path of safety”
Issue of rights could only rise with equals,
politeness is the only virtue with superiors,
and not to mingle with inferiors will be the way
for a weak nation to protect itself.
In his account of the Peloponnesian War, Thucydides
describes the terrible plague that fell upon Athens
when the Athenian people were gathered inside
their walled city in a defensive strategy meant
to frustrate the Spartans. These passages reveal
that sufferings make even the mighty man lose
their faith in gods. “The most terrible
thing of all was the despair into which people
fell when they realized that they had caught the
plague; for they would immediately adopt an attitude
of utter hopelessness, and, by giving in this
way, would lose their powers of resistance”
In the face of natural calamity, the Athenians
felt powerless and they lost their vaunted respect
for honor and behaved in a very shameful manner
“Many people, lacking the necessary means
of burial because so many deaths had already occurred
in their households, adopted the most shameless
methods. They would arrive first at a funeral
pyre that had been made by others, put their own
dead upon it and set it alight; or, finding another
pyre, they would throw the corpse that they were
carrying on top of the other one and go away.”
The historian tells us also, that under these
terrible events, the Athenians adopted a carelessness
and nihilism that destroyed their devotion to
law and order:
Seeing how quick and abrupt were the changes of
fortune which came to the rich who suddenly died
and to those who had previously been penniless...,
people began openly to venture on acts of self
indulgence which before they used to keep in the
dark ....No fear of god or law of man had a restraining
influence. As for the gods, it seemed to be the
same thing whether one worshiped them or not,
when one saw the good and bad dying indiscriminately.”
The strength of faith is tested only during times
of trial. It is difficult to maintain faith and
religious fervor in the midst of suffering and
death. This was the truth as revealed by Thucydides
in his narration of The Plague of Athens.
Thucydides gives a very detailed description of
the revolution at Corcyra in the fifth year of
the Peloponnesian war (427 BCE). He portrays Corcyra
as a model sample for all the revolutions yet
to come “Corcyra gave the first example
of most of the crimes"
From his observations of the revolution at Corcyra,
he draws several negative conclusions on human
nature and nature of events. He begins by saying
“"Death thus raged in every shape;
and, as usually happens at such times, there was
no length to which violence did not go”
In the presence of death, actions and opinions
changed. This psychological fact was observed
by Thucydides “Words had to change their
ordinary meaning and to take that which was now
given them"
The worst sides of people are revealed during
revolution.” but war takes away the easy
supply of daily wants, and so proves a rough master,
that brings most men's characters to a level with
their fortunes"
That human nature has the dominant nature of
irrational animal behavior in the face of adversity
is an observation made by the historian.
“Then, with the ordinary conventions of
civilized life thrown into confusion, human nature,...showed
itself proudly in its true colors, as something
incapable of controlling passion, insubordinate
to the idea of justice.”
The Corcyraean revolution began with the return
of the prisoners taken in the sea-fights off Epidamnus.
In the face of troubles, chaos reigned supreme
society became divided into camps in which no
man trusted his fellow. "Reckless audacity
came to be considered the courage of a loyal ally;
pr udent hesitation, specious cowardice"
Thucydides describes the revolution at Corcyra,
exams the evidence provided by careful observation,
and from there draws the conclusion that "human
nature, always rebelling against the law and now
its master, gladly showed itself ungoverned in
passion, above respect for justice, and the enemy
of all superiority"
Athens, the country of war loving people, unwisely
launched the large expedition against Sicily and
Syracuse. Nicias warned the Athenians of the difficulties
of such an expedition.
“the Athenians, however, far
from losing their appetite for the voyage because
of the difficulties in preparing
for it, became more enthusiastic about it than
ever”
The people of Athens showed themselves unable
to curb or control
their passions for war. This argument further
adds to the fact that irrational animal nature
exists in humans as it was shown in the revolt
of Corcyra. Thucydides goes on to say
“there was a passion for the
enterprise which affected everyone alike . . .
The result of this excessive
enthusiasm of the majority was that the few who
were actually opposed to the
expedition were afraid of being thought unpatriotic
if they voted against it, and
therefore kept quiet”
This mob hysteria for war undermined the democracy
at Athens and contributed to a foolish military
decision. After the destruction of the Athenian
expedition at Syracuse, the army was thrown into
chaos, again fulfilling Thucydides view of human
nature. Routed and running, the Athenian army
was destroyed in the river, because
“forced to crowd in close together, they
fell upon each other and trampled each
other underfoot; some were killed immediately
by their own spears, other got
entangled among themselves and among the baggage
and were swept away by
the river”.
While confusion and crowding killed their compatriots,
the
remainder:
”In a disordered mass, were greedily drinking
in the deep river-bed.
And the Peloponnesians came down and slaughtered
them,
especially those who were in the river. The water
immediately
became foul, but nevertheless they went on drinking
it, all muddy
as it was and stained with blood; indeed, most
of them were
fighting among themselves to have it “
In the throes of uncontrolled passions, ignoring
justice, and envying those with water, the army
was self destructive in its quest for bloody and
polluted river water.
Again politicians, oligarchs this time, put vengeance
and profit over innocence and justice and were
‘insubordinate to the idea of justice’.
According to Thucydides, “Some men, though
not many, whom they thought it convenient to be
done away
with, were put to death; others were imprisoned
or sent into exile”
Killing when it is convenient is insubordinate
to justice and puts profit above justice. This
then is Thucydides’ view of human nature
in times of chaos.
Thucydides bleak view of human nature as passionate,
chaotic, unjust, and envious is borne out repeatedly
throughout his History whenever the boundaries
of civilized conduct are broken by defeat, plagues,
and war. Through this human nature, Athens loses
her citizens’ dedication of their lives
to the good of the city and justice, her democracy
is crippled by envious politicians and a mob mentality
that suppresses dissent, and finally she loses
what defines her, her army, navy, and democracy.
According to Thucydides, the human nature that
emerges under great stress is what ultimately
causes the defeat of Athens, not Sparta. Destroyed
from within, Athens, crippled by a broken democracy,
can only fight a losing battle against the Peloponnesian
League.
Interesting to quote at this point the observations
of an anonymous student comparing the results
of the Sicilian Expedition as narrated by Thucydides
to the present situation in Iraq” The US's
imminent military adventure in Iraq bears a striking
resemblance to events occurring almost 2500 years
ago--Athens' Sicilian Expedition during the Peloponnesian
war.
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