| I. History of
labor unions in the US
Unionization can be traced through the history
of the movement of ad hoc groups of skilled labors
such as carpenters, cabinet makers, printers and
cord makers etc. at the time of the Declaration
of Independence. Their efforts in demanding higher
pay and shorter working hours by going on strikes
during the 18th century marked the beginning of
organized labor movements. As the power of employers
in collaboration with the legislature to curtail
strikes increased, American workers realized the
importance of sustaining their stance in unionization.
They started forming organized groups of workers
working for general welfare of the workforce.
The National Labor Union formed in 1866 had been
the result of this effort. After this, in 1869
the Knights of Labor was formed by Uriah Stephens.
The organizations aimed at the amelioration of
working hours and wages for the skilled as well
as unskilled laborers. Although they forced a
lot of negative publicity but the Knights of Labor
formed the base for the formation of American
Federation of Labor by Samuel Gompers in 1886.
The AFL though negated the presence of women and
children in the workforce, and at the same time
voiced their concern for sinking “skilled”
workforce working at minimal wages. At that time,
the AFL only represented the union membership
of skilled workers (The Labor Union Movement in
America, 2004).
Changes in the organization of unions took place
in 1894 with the Pullman Strike by the American
Railroad Union, which boycotted the Pullman plant
from manufacturing the nation's railroads. The
interference of the government and injunction
by the legislature showed that the workers did
not have legislative presence and therefore required
legal intervention before their concerns could
be heard. Similar events led to more uprising
which, with the urging of the AFL, forced Congress
to consider the set up of a Department of Labor.
This division was to devise legislatures that
would protect the rights of the workers as well
as address job exploitation. The LaFollette Seaman's
Act and the Clayton Act of 1914 for example played
important roles in negating the Sherman Act provisions
to stop union organization. Thus, the Clayton
Act legalized strikes and boycotts.
Following the AFL, the Committee for Industrial
Organization (CIO) was formed, albeit for the
interest and benefits of the industrial workers.
Industrial unions were considered to be different
as these comprise of union members of skilled
laborers of industrial nature. However, in the
course of World Wars, the changing labor population
and similarity in interests towards unionism led
to the merger of the CIO and the AFL (The Labor
Union Movement in America, 2004). With their merger,
the power of union increased further which could
be observed in the passage of the National Labor
Relations Act (Wagner Act).
The Wagner Act proved to be a landmark in legal
development, as it allowed the workers to form
unions, and to bargain collectively as well. This
led to the increase in union membership from 3.8
million to 9 million from 1935 to 1940 (Chao,
2001, p. 59). Yet, while the Wagner Act allowed
the formation of labor unions there had been no
clear demarcation or administrative provisions
for union formation. By the demand of the public,
Congress had to enact another legislation to restrict
and control labor unions which emerged in the
form of the Labor Management Relations (Taft-Hartley)
Act. This Act prohibited unfair practices as well
as restricted the unions from engaging in health
and safety strikes, control over contract contents
and union administration. Similarly, the Fair
Labor Standards act of 1938 passed to regulate
wage standards, working conditions and working
hours. As a result of these legislature, union
demands declined as the government ensured worker's
rights were met. The 1959 Labor-Management Reporting
Act furthered this cause by providing protection
to rights of the union members (Chao 2001, p.
59). As more and more legislature were formed,
union members enjoyed more privileges such as
social benefits, compensation benefits as well
as retirement benefits.
II. Changing demographics in the unions, men
leaving due to better workplace conditions.
Parallel to this historical development, had been
the change in demographics of workers. Initially,
the majority of the labor force comprised of men
working for the livelihood of their families.
They may or may not have been specialized in particular
skills. Hence, whether they were working on the
railroads or at local banks as managers, they
had been secured in their jobs. However, with
the emergence of the Great Depression, there was
increased demand for two earners in American families.
This trend was altered dramatically with the emergence
of World War II, when women entered the workforce
in millions to replace the men who went to war.
They not only took over male jobs such as positions
at heavy machineries but also white collar positions.
However, when the veterans returned, women were
forced back into their traditional female jobs/roles
so that the men could be accommodated in the decreasing
job pool. This kind of discrimination led to the
lowering of female wage and deteriorating workplace
environment while men sought jobs with higher
pay and better work environment (Chao, 2001, p.60).
With the change in work force demographics, families’
income and purchasing power also changed. Companies
switched from goods-producing to service-producing,
which increased the demand for white-collar workers.
The decline in the demand for labor intensive
work led to the decline in popularity of unions.
On the other hand, companies realized that white-collar
workers required better compensation, work environment
and benefits, resulting in the increase in company
paid benefits such as family care, health care,
insurance leaves, benefit plans, etc. Unions therefore
carried on working for the interest of blue-collar
workers, which comprised female workers who were
forced to earn low wages yet at the same timings
and working conditions.
Men on the other hand, enjoying company privileges
no longer required the assistance or legal representation
of union organizations as they needed before.
Instead they have been able to seek high-paying
jobs at the executive levels while their wives
worked at the clerical level. Furthermore, companies
prefer (ed) to appoint men at the board of director
levels with profit sharing plans to compensate
for their participation thereby eliminating the
presence of unions in the organization.
This trend only intensified the need for unions
among female workers after the Second World War
as they continue to be discriminated and require
legal help in demanding their wage and benefits.
The insecurity that they feel stems from the history
of working women.
III. History of women in labor unions (past,
present and future predictions)
At the time of the formation of the NLU, there
had been little consideration for the segregation
of female or male workers, as most of the occupations
had been taken up by men. However, as Alexander
Hamilton (Mofford, 1996) identified the benefits
of hiring cheap women and children workers, exploitation
of their status in society and especially the
fact that they were unskilled, led to the proliferation
of deteriorating working conditions.
The Knights of Labor established in 1869 had been
the first large scale national labor federation
to be launched, which partly preserved women's
rights to participate in the legislative and vote.
This organization however, gave way to the formation
of the American Federation of Labor (AFL), which
had been male-dominated and headed by Samuel Gompers.
The AFL worked for the interest of the general
workers and gave little attention to the cause
of working women. To channel their concerns, working
women joined force in the form with the upper
class women in the Women's Trade Union League
(WTUL). It had been Clara Lemlich of the WTUL
in 1909, who participated in a strike and gained
the sympathy of an audience by a call for action
against female working conditions at the shirtwaist
factories. Even during the FDR's New Deal era
women did not gain recognition for their participation
in the economy. With the enactment of the Wagner
Act of 1935 in which the National Labor Relations
Board required employers not to discriminate against
union members and guarantee their collective bargaining
rights, women's roles had been ignored. And when
the Great Depression set in, unemployment rose,
and female workers had to face discrimination
because of their marital status and resort to
traditional female jobs which paid less.
Despite this fact, the population of female workers
grew as much as 18 million from 1960 to 1995.
The change in worker's demographics not only forced
the legislature to reconsider the provision for
flexibility for leave for working women as well
as benefits for female workers but also the passage
of legislature for the protection of these individuals.
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 for example saw to
the formation of Equal Employment Opportunity
Commission (EEOC), which resolved many sex discriminated
cases with the help of the National Organization
for Women (Leckie, 2004). Companies have been
unwilling in this regard, which resulted in the
passage of the Pregnancy Discrimination Act in
1978 and Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993
to protect the rights of working women, especially
married women (Chao, 2001, p. 61).
In the author's opinion this trend will continue
but at a slow pace, as women are less represented
in the legislature. Most rely on unions for legal
consultancy while men rely on acompany's representation.
This kind of imbalance between the two not only
offers more privilege to the male workers but
at the same time lessens the chances for development
for women workers unless intervened by the justice
department and the government.
IV. US and International demographics of women
in unions.
Statistics provided by the US Department of Labor
indicate that there has been a decline in the
number of membership in labor unions in both the
male and female populations. However, there has
been an increase in the demand for union representation
among the Latino population which has been increasingly
discriminated at the workplace for the years 2002-2003
(US Department of Labor, 2004). However, the gap
between the two has been steadily decreasing since
the 1980s (Union Members Summary, 2003).
V. Closing arguments and summation
Historical development indicates that organized
labor groups have been formed with the objective
of furthering the interest of a male-dominated
workforce. However, as the workforce became populated
by female workers during the World Wars, the legislative
had not been prepared for their inclusion. As
a result, female workers are still under-represented
as compared to male workers, and require union
representation. On the other hand, male workers
have been given more preference and privileges
so that they no longer require such assistance.
Instead, they have better working conditions as
compared to females and also enjoy higher pay.
For this reason there has been a decline in the
male membership in workforce unions as compared
to women.
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