DIn Western Europe, the authority of the Roman Catholic Church remained largely unquestioned until the Renaissance in the fifteenth century. The invention of the printing press in Germany, circa 1450, made it possible for common people to have access to printed material including the Bible. It also enabled many to discover religious thinkers who had begun to question the authority of the Roman Catholic Church. The term Reformation has been used to describe the series of changes in Western Christendom between the fourteenth and seventeenth centuries, most focused in the sixteenth century. The early sixteenth century brought divergences from Catholic doctrine, concentrating on the financial excesses of the Papacy and the Curia

Luther had come to believe that man is unable to respond to God without divine grace, and that man can be justified only through faith (per solam fidem), by the merits of Christ imputed to him, works or religious observance are irrelevant. When Martin Luther protested against the corruption of Rome and the great abuses attending the sale of indulgences, he was not breaking new or controversial ground. Luther, a German priest and professor, is credited with starting the movement know as the Protestant Reformation when in 1517 he posted his ninety-five theses against the Roman Catholic practice of selling indulgences on a church door in Wittenberg, Germany.

In 1523 Zwingli successfully defended theses stating that the sole basis of truth was the Gospel, and rejecting the authority of the Pope, the sacrifice of the Mass, the invocation of saints, times and seasons of fastings, and clerical celibacy.
Some twenty years later, a French/Swiss theologian, John Calvin, further refined the reformers’ new way of thinking about the nature of God and God’s relationship with humanity in what came to be known as Reformed theology. This theology proved to be the driving force of the Reformation, particularly in W. Germany, France, the Netherlands, England, and Scotland. After serving as pastor to the French congregation in Strasbourg for three years, Calvin accepted the invitation of Geneva to return to that city. In 1541 he began fourteen years of work to establish a theocratic regime in the city. His Ecclesiastical Ordinances were adopted by the city council in November 1541. These distinguished four ministries within the church: pastors, doctors, elders, and deacons. Other reforming measures included introducing vernacular catechisms and liturgy. Calvin also produced extensive commentaries on the New Testament which he later supplemented with a series dealing with Old Testament works. Calvin’s Institutes are still regarded as one of the most important literary and theological works of the period.

Reformed churches are those that are influenced by the theology of Calvin, Knox, Zwingli, and others in contract to the Lutherans. Designation of these ‘protestant’ churches as eglises reformees, reformierte Kirchen, ecclesiase reformatae, was already common before the end of the sixteenth century.
Luther’s message can be condensed into three main ideas. Authority of Scripture--the Bible is the sole foundation of Christian thought--not what other people say about it. Justification by Faith--More faith, less ritual--keeps only Baptism and Eucharist. Priesthood of Believers--no separation between the lay people and the priests--no need for celibacy--no miracle in mass--language of the believers should be the vernacular--translates Bible into Zwingli (d. 1531)--likes Luther's simplicity. Belief that man is good, but needs constant correction and reminders to stay that way.
Anabaptists--while Zwingli and Luther see some role for church authority, these radical

Protestants take things one step further. They want to return to the simplicity of the
Church in the time of Christ--adult baptism, communal property, etc.
Calvin--discuss in class--predestination--much larger and longer lasting impact than Luther. Catholicism and Protestantism become almost like two major international parties which can intervene in and complicate local disputes. Watch as people become more concerned with their allegiance to their state rather than their religion. A strong monarchy and a strong church will support each other, and the most effective monarchs place political objectives before religious ones.
Rise in urban literacy--allows people to read the Bible on their own--before focus of religion was on the ritual of the sacraments and easy lessons, e.g. 7 deadly sins.
One of the reasons for the rise in literacy was improvement in paper technology--13th and 14th centuries--and the development of movable type in the 15th century. A related development was reading glasses, which enabled those with poor vision to read. A movement called Brothers of the Common Life, later known as Modern Devotion encouraged religious life outside formal religious structures. It began in the late 14th century in the Netherlands and spread throughout N Europe. The Imitation of Christ, written in 1425, summarized the philosophy of the movement.

The rise of humanism in Renaissance Italy (15th century--spread N&W thereafter)—movement which involved the self-conscious idea of entering a new age: the ancient world was distinct from the medieval one, and people were embarking on another phase. This movement involved the copy, preservation, and study of ancient texts.

Reformers realized that reforming the church would mean breaking from the Catholic Church to found a truer faith—Catholics, of course, viewed this action as deviating from the true faith. These reformers gained the support of European princes who saw religious change as an opportunity to increase their own power, esp. in the HRE, where the Hapsburgs had a monopoly on power and vigorously defended the Catholic Church.

Protestant princes insisted that their subjects had to follow their faith. Furthermore, they could seize lands belonging to the Catholic Church. While in a united Christendom, Catholic states and rulers vied for the favor of the pope, but Protestants had no higher appeal than that of their ruler. As states grew and enforced their vision of Christian doctrine, witchcraft became a major state and religious crime. Medieval Christians did not view poverty with the same disdain that Protestant reformers did. In the past, giving alms to the poor was seen as a route to salvation. According to Calvinist and Puritan doctrine, however, poverty was seen as a moral flaw.