Introduction:
One management scholar, Mary Parker Follett, described management as ‘the art of getting things done through people.’ Peter Drucker, a noted management theorist, explained that managers give direction to the organizations, provide leadership, and decide how to use organizational resources to accomplish goals. A manager’s job is complex and multidimensional and requires a range of skills. For example, conceptual skill, that is, the cognitive ability to see the organization as a whole and the relationship among its parts, are needed by all managers but are especially important for managers at the top. Human skill is the manager’s ability to work with and through other people and to work effectively as a group number. Technical skills are also critical because a manager needs to understand and know the proficiency in the performance of specific tasks. (Daft, 1997; Stoner & Freeman, 1989; Drucker, 1974)

Communication and the manager’s job:
Experts consider communication to be a key process underlying all aspects of organizational operations. Contemporary scholars variously refer to organizational communication as ‘the social glue…that continues to keep the organization tied together’ and as ‘the essence of organization.’ Writing many years ago, the well-known management theorist and former New Jersey Bell Telephone president Chester Bernard said, “The structure, extensiveness and scope of the organization are almost entirely determined by communication techniques.” This strong statement makes sense considering that supervisors spend as much as 80 percent of their time engaging in some form of communication, such a speaking or listening to others or writing to and reading material from others (Baron & Greenberg, 2000).

Hence, communication has an essential part to play in a manager’s job as well. Managers spend at least 80 percent of every working day in direct communication with others. In other words, 48 minutes of every hour is spent in meetings, on the telephone, or talking informally while walking around. The other 20 percent of a typical manager’s time is spent doing desk work, most of which is also communication in the form of reading and writing. (Daft, 1997)

Communication permeates every management function: planning, organizing, leading and controlling. For example, when managers perform the planning function, they gather information; write letters, memos and reports; and then meet with other managers to explain the plan. When managers lead, they communicate with subordinates to motivate them. When managers organize, they gather information about the state f the organization and communicate a new structure to them. Communication skills are a fundamental part of every managerial activity. (Daft, 1997)

The Process of Communication:
Communication is defined as the process by which a person, group or organization (i.e., the sender) transmits some type of information (i.e., the message) to another person, group, or organization (i.e., the receiver). The process begins when one party has an idea it wishes to transmit to another. The sender’s mission is to shape the idea into the form which can be sent to and understood by the receiver. This is the process of encoding – translating an idea into a form (e.g., written or spoken language) that can be recognized by a receiver. This process is critical to communicating our ideas clearly, but unfortunately, people are far from perfect when it comes to encoding their ideas.
An encoded message is then ready to be transmitted over one or more channels of communication, that is, pathways along which information travels, to reach the desired receiver. Of course the form of coding largely determines how the information is transmitted. Whatever channel is used, the goal is the same: to send the encoded message accurately to a desired receiver. Once a message is received, the recipient begins the process of decoding, that is, of converting the message back into the sender’s original ideas. Our ability to comprehend and to interpret information received from others may be imperfect (e.g., restricted by unclear messages or by our own language skills). Thus, as with encoding, limitations in our ability to decode information represent another potential weakness in the communication process.
Once a message is decoded, the receiver can transmit a new message back to the original sender. This is known as feedback – that is, knowledge about the effect of messages on receiver. Despite the apparent simplicity of the communication process, it rarely operates as flawlessly as we describe. There are many potential barriers to effective communication, and the name given to factors distorting the clarity of a message is noise. Noise can occur at any point in the communication process. (Baron & Greenberg, 2000)

The fundamental role of communication in organizations:
A key purpose of organizational communication is to direct action, that is, to get others to behave as desired. Communication in organizations, however, often involves not only single actions, but concerted action. Thus, for an organization to function, individuals and groups must coordinate their efforts and activities carefully. Fir example, the market researcher must collect information about consumer needs and share it with those in charge of manufacturing and advertising. Communication is key in these attempts at coordination. Without it, people would no know what to do, and organizations would not function correctly. In other words, another key function of communication in organizations is to achieve coordinated action.
This function is served by the systematic sharing of information. But communication involves more than just the sharing of facts and data. There is an interpersonal facet of organizational communication, a focus on the social relations between people, as well. For example, communication also is highly involved in purposes such as developing friendships and building trust and acceptance. What a person says, and how they say it can affect profoundly the extent to which his dealings with other take place. To the extent people are interested in creating a pleasant interpersonal atmosphere in the workplace; they must be highly concerned about communication (Daft, 1999).
In today’s intensely competitive environment, senior executives at most companies are trying to improve communication. The president of Syntex Corporation, a pharmaceuticals maker, eats breakfast at 7:30 each morning in the employee cafeteria exchanging information with workers. The president and CEO of Windham Hill Records holds weekly one-hour meetings with rank-and-file employees, giving each the opportunity to discuss the week ahead. This formula keeps all employees informed about activities and problems in other departments. Dial-A-Mattress founder and president Napoleon Barragan insists on a no-secrets culture, believing that a lack of communication is the root of almost every organizational problem. Up-to-the-minute financial, telemarketing, and sales information is relayed to employees daily. Regular meetings serve as forums for cross-departmental communication. The company also solicits ideas and suggestions from customers, suppliers and even competitors (Daft, 1997; O’Boyle & Hymowitz, 1985).

These executives are interested in staying connected with employees and customers and with shaping company direction. To do so, they must be in touch. Non-managers are often amazed at how much energy successful executives put into communication. Hence, management and communication are intertwined and successful managers have to be effective communicators. The importance of effective management who knows the value of communication in the workplace is manifold (Daft, 1997).

Conflict caused by barriers to communication:
Conflict refers to antagonistic interaction in which one party attempts to block the intentions or goals of another. One factor which causes people to engage people in conflict is communication breakdown. Communication is sometimes faulty. Poor communication results in misperceptions and misunderstandings of other people and teams. In some cases, information may be intentionally withheld, which can jeopardize trust among teams and lead to long-lasting conflict (Pierre & Peppers, 1976).

Example:
Product marketing teams at Salvo, a designer of computer software programs, develop demonstration tapes of its new games and programs for use in dealer stores. The marketing person on the team works up an outline for a tape base on product content. The outline is then submitted to the team member from the information systems department to work out the displays and graphics.
Larry from marketing is energetic, has a good sense of humor, and has a high standard for excellence. He knows what a computer can do, but he is not a programmer. Larry submitted an outline of a new video-tape to Eric in information systems for development. Eric, a new member of the team is serious and somewhat introverted. He sent a highly technical memo to Larry explaining why the project wouldn’t work as requested. Larry was upset, because he didn’t understand the memo or why Eric had written a memo instead of talking to him face-to-face. Larry and Eric had a blow-up in their first meeting because of their different goals and personalities. Miscommunication further aggravated the situation. This difference in personality and faulty communication, coupled with other factors like jurisdictional ambiguity (because it was unclear who was responsible for each task and because Eric was new and accustomed to taking orders from another team member) caused an almost explosive conflict between them (Parson, 1986).

Barriers to Communication:
Barriers to communication can exist within the individual or as part of the organization.

Individual: First, there are interpersonal barriers; these include problems with emotions and perceptions held by employees. For example, rigid perceptual labeling or categorizing of others prevents modification or alteration of opinions. If a person’s mind is made up before the communication starts, the communication will fail. Moreover, people with different backgrounds or knowledge may interpret a communication in different ways. Second, selecting the wrong channel or medium for sending a communication can be a problem. For example, when a message is emotional, it is better to transmit it face-to-face rather than in writing. On the other hand, writing works best for routine messages but lacks the capacity for rapid feedback and multiple cues needed for difficult messages. Third, semantics often cause communication problems. Semantics pertains to the meaning of words and the way they are used. A word such as ‘effectiveness’ may mean achieving high production to a factory superintendent and employee satisfaction to a human resources staff specialist. Many common words have an average of 28 definitions; thus communicators must take care to select the words that will accurately encode ideas. Fourth, sending inconsistent cues between verbal and nonverbal communications will confuse the receiver. If one’s facial expression does not match one’s words, the communication will contain noise and uncertainty. The tone of voice and body language should be consistent with the words, and actions should not contradict words (Daft, 1997; Kahn, 2003; Fulk & Mani, 1986).

Organizational: Organizational factors pertain to factors for the organization as a whole. First is the problem of status and power differences. Low-power people may be reluctant to pass bad news up the hierarchy, thus giving the wrong impression to upper levels. High-power people may not pay attention or may feel that low-status people have little to contribute. Second, differences across departments in terms of needs and goals interfere with communications. Each department perceives problems in its own terms. The production department is concerned with production efficiency and may not fully understand the marketing department’s need to get the product to the customer in a hurry. Third, the communication flow may not fit the team’s or organization’s task. If a centralized communication structure is used for non-routine tasks, there will not be enough information circulated to solve problems. The organization, department or team is most efficient when the amount of communication flowing among employees fits the task. Fourth, the absence of formal channels reduces communication effectiveness. Organizations must provide adequate upwards, downward, and horizontal communication in the form of employee surveys, open-door policies, newsletters, memos, task forces, and liaison personnel. Without these formal channels, the organization cannot communicate as a whole (Daft, 1997; Davis & Newstrom, 1985).

Overcoming communication barriers:
Managers can design the organization so as to encourage positive, effective communication. Designing involved both individual skills and organizational actions.

Individual Skills: Perhaps the most important individual skill is active listening. Active listening means asking questions, showing interest, and occasionally paraphrasing what the speaker has said to ensure that one is interpreting correctly. Active listening also means providing feedback to the sender to complete the communication loop. Second, individuals should select the appropriate channel for the message. A complicated message should be sent through a rich channel, such as face-to-face discussion or telephone. Routine messages and date can be sent through memos, letters, or electronic mail, because there is little chance of misunderstanding. Third, senders and receivers should make a special effort to understand each other’s perspective. Managers can sensitize themselves to the information receiver so that they will be better able to target the message, detect bias, and clarify missed interpretations. The fourth individual skill is management by wandering around. Managers must be willing to get out of the office and check communications with others. For example, John McDonnell of McDonnell Douglas always eats in the employee cafeteria when he visits far-flung facilities. Through direct observation and face-to-face meetings, managers develop an understanding of the organization and are able to communicate important ides and values directly to others (Daft, 1997).

Organizational: Perhaps the most important thing managers can do for the organization is to create a climate of trust and openness. This will encourage people to communicate freely and honestly with one another. Subordinates will feel free to transmit negative as well as positive messages without fear of retribution. Efforts to develop interpersonal skills among employees can be made to foster openness, honesty and trust. Second, managers should develop and use formal information channels in all networks. Scandinavian Design uses two newsletters to reach employees. GM’s Packard Electric plant is deigned to share all pertinent information – financial, future plans, quality performance – with employees. Bank of America uses programs called Innovate and Idea Tap to get ideas and feedback from employees. Other techniques include direct mail, bulletin boards and employee surveys. Third, managers should encourage the use of multiple channels, including both formal and informal communications. Multiple communication channels include written directives, face-to-face discussions, MBWA, and the grapevine. For example, managers at GM’s Packard Electric plant use multimedia, including a monthly newspaper, frequent meetings of employee teams, and an electronic news display in the cafeteria. Sending messages through multiple channels increases the likelihood that they will be properly received. Fourth, the structure should fit communication needs. For example, Harrah’s created the Communication Team as part of its structure at the Casino / Holiday Inn at Las Vegas. The team includes one member from each department. It deals with urgent company problems and helps people think beyond the scope of their own departments to communicate with anyone and everyone to solve their problems. An organization can be designed to use teams, task forces, integrating managers, or a matrix structure as needed to facilitate the horizontal flow of information for coordination and problem solving. Structure should also reflect information needs. When team or department tasks are difficult, a decentralized structure should be implemented to encourage participation and discussion. Dialogue can help team members arrive at collective solutions to complex problems (Daft, 1997).